Balkan Culture

 

Language genome and paleolanguages:

The battle for the antiquity of Serbian language and culture

Vladan L. Kuzmanovic

University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia

 

Vladan L. Kuzmanović (Serbia, 1977) is a Serbian artist, folklorist, ethnomusicologist, and polyhistorian.

 

Keywords: cultural anthropology; genetic linguistics; phylogentic tree; paleolingusitics; paleo-European languages.

 

Introduction

The latest research in the field of genetic biology provides us with certain forms of knowledge for the application of the field of linguistic sciences and paleolinguistics, primarily knowledge that was necessary to draw certain conclusions about the evolution or cyclical changes of linguistic nature in language family groups, which were not available before and usable. Linguistic sciences also advocate the use of the latest knowledge in the field of origin and development of haplogroups and human migrations over a wider area and over long periods of time. Such knowledge and such insights are also used by paleolinguistic research as objective and scientifically attested or genetically verified facts as a basis for archaeological paleolinguistic elaborations and consequent linguistic studies of genesis and origin, and above all the development or interpretation of temporal kinship of language groups. The use of genetic biology in the fields of lingual theory and paleolinguistic sciences will require the introduction of new linguistic areas of biolinguistics and genetic linguistics, for the study of the language genome on a wider spatial and temporal shift, as an authentic scientific method. Paleolinguistics studies the beginnings and foundations of paleolanguages, and in the case of biolinguistics, with the current knowledge, of paleolithic languages, their development, generation, formulation, chronology and derivation in the branch of paleolithic languages as a rudimentary or primordial form, base or linear correlation within an evolutionary and cyclical model. Elements and the linguistic plane, derivations and linguistic development, derivatives and influences, persistence and new language layers, exist in combination with a diffuse, multi-meaning and multilateral model of exchange, in the Paleolithic era, as well as their conditioning and interweaving with Neolithic and proto-languages, mutual influence and reciprocity. in a certainly complex and dynamic general linguistic model. It is a basic, primogenetic science of language reconstruction as well as language persistence and formation. The language genome as a category of economic anthropology and a phenomenon that follows the cultural and spatial movements of human populations refers to the inseparability of linguistics from other cultural rudiments and modalities, mostly economic, social and demographic categories. The language genome indicates the movement of the language family according to geophysical and migratory movements as well as cultural and areo-chronological linguistic influences. The language genome describes a chronoreal, wider geographical space within a longer period of time. In terms of the linguistic genome, language is understood as a human mode and population category, inseparable from cultural movements and population history. Language is a cultural aspect of the human population. Biologinistics, following the development of genetic biology, now has a genealogical group of languages.

 

Phylogenetic language tree

The Paleo-African language was formed genomically around 200,000 years BC (then 150,000 BC Paleokoisian and 130,000 BC Paleonigerkongo), from which the Paleo-Asian language with subgroups Paleo-Indian, Paleo-Iranian derives. From the Paleo-Indian language around 65,000 BC Paleo-Khmer and Austroasiatic, around 50,000 BC Paleo-Australian, around 45,000 BC Paleosinitic, around 40,000 BC Paleo-European, around 15,000 BC Paleo-American, namely Paleo-North Amerind, Paleo-Central Amerind, around 14,000 years BC Paleo-South Amerind, Paleo-Caribic, Paleo-Andean, Paleo-Equatorial), Paleo-European language was formed from Paleo-Asiatic around 40,000 BC, and Paleo-Indo-European from Paleo-Indian. Proto-languages arise from Paleo-European, namely: Proto-Balkan, Proto-Hellenic, Proto-Germanic, Proto-Nordic, which were formed in interaction and are influenced more intensively by Paleo-Indo-European languages, i.e. Proto-Indo-European. The Paleo-Balkan or Paleo-European language group includes Proto-Balkan, Proto-Hellenic, Proto-Germanic, and Proto-Nordic, respectively. Paleolingual theory of tracks and many useful and population-attested repercussions: proto-languages are derivatives of paleo-languages and indigenous, they are native languages, proto-languages are the result of Paleo-European and Into-European influences, Paleo-American is autochthonous and older than Proto-Ind-European, Proto-Greek is older than Proto-Nordic. In terms of Paleo-European languages, they derive from Paleo-Asian, Paleo-Levantic, Paleo-Anatolian or Paleo-Iranian.

The necessity of paleo-linguistic analyzes of paleo-languages and language groups arises before us, considering the new insights and discoveries of genetic biology, above all the knowledge that came from the analysis of the culture of the development of human migrations. Analysis of these and such languages in the Paleolithic with regard to the growth and development of the anthropology of distribution, position and influence as well as the population, language, customs, beliefs, homogeneous or heterogeneous in character, crystallized over time into independent or complex creations of new cultures and new subcultures of populations and language subspecies. Linguistic culture differs a lot from anthropological culture, especially when it comes to such large time periods and chronological shifts, as the continuity of the culture of a certain human population in a certain area over a long period of time, where we can expect both significant homogenization and still heterogeneous division and subtypes of languages and linguistic creations over a long period of time, continuity of language cultures, language values and cultural values of certain human populations so that in a certain sense we can talk about a rudimentary paleolinguistic analysis. When talking about foundations, it is very useful to repeat and mention language cultures and language values, that in this concept the language population is understood as a system or nucleus within which they exist. Various aspects of such advantages, such as customs, communication, religion, human activities, organization, language, from which certain generalities, specific conclusions regarding the forms of language culture and language breadth, determined by temporal continuity in a certain space, arise. Such linguistic continuity or linguistic generality in the long term also implies certain dynamics, continuation, growth and development, grouping and clusters, the creation and emergence of new and linguistic cultures or subcultures, the improvement of those or the creation of new communicative cultures. The anthropological culture of the Paleolithic is, in a certain sense, a rounded, complete, continuous and, above all, respectable chronological culture. Here we can already talk about the elements of a conscious and effective human culture with its even further development and consequent generalization, with the formed foundations of language and the anthropology of linguistic culture.

 

The language genome

The language culture of human populations or the language genome as a complex culture at a certain level of development as with pronounced continuity in propagation is present on the entire area of human civilization as a consequence of the growth and development of human civilization as well as human migrations in the entire area. Chronologically, temporally, geophysically and with other elements, considering the closeness, immediacy and mutual influence of such human populations and their base cultures, which, as we said, are world-wide, continuous, which are adorned with a certain completeness, compactness, embodiment and which already as such considering to growth, development, derivations in the movement and organization of life or the Paleolithic division of activities, polarization, egalitarianism, solidarity and autarky of human communities is a certain language culture or language community which is a value system, communicative structure or communication culture between different human clusters, stakeholders, interlocutors, specific members of Paleolithic tribes and which follows the overall language culture of Paleolithic communities and Paleolithic human populations, that language culture is inevitably intertwined with human culture.

That is why we are talking about certain consistencies of language cultures within the cultures of haplo populations as a definitely determining element of human culture, the culture of that particular human population. Human migrations speak not only about movements but also about the approximate distribution, derivatives, outcomes and interactions of different paleolithic homogeneous, related, spatial and temporal populations and cultures that exist for a long period of time, but that are also very dynamic over a long period of time in the sense that they move according to the physical conditions of the population's cultural matrix, hence the language and linguistic properties characteristic of these new human communities.

 

Paleolinguistics analysis, Paleolithic language groups

Paleolinguistics analysis in this new understanding of things includes the analysis of Paleolithic languages and Paleolithic language groups, related Paleolithic groups and haplo populations, the structure of languages as well as their unique phylogenetic tree. In the past, paleo-linguistics did not have the knowledge that current paleo-linguistics possesses, which relates to genetic studies, studies and analyses of human cultures and populations, hence, logically, paleo-linguists lacked conclusions for the necessary generalizations regarding the origin and development of language within the human community and human culture. Paleolinguistics analysis is interested in the authenticity and nativeness of Paleo languages, primarily Neolithic languages and the Neolithic language layer, as well as their logical authenticity, and above all about Paleolithic languages and Paleolithic cultures . However, the culture of paleo languages is in several ways different and distinct from the Neolithic culture of the historical culture of paleo Indo-European languages, which points to new linguistic discoveries as well as adequate linguistic genealogy, as well as an attempt at approximate dating or relative or relational, that is, where you date the age of individual languages and their linguistic foundations.

With one such arrangement and geophysical or geostrategic positioning, derivations and migrations, we are able to understand and comprehend in a greater number of layers the culture and Paleolithic cultural clusters as well as the original forms of the formation of language bases, with a relatively elaborate description in the Neolithic period, to more reliably understand the inter-influences and overlaps that occur in different time periods and acculturation, such as Paleolithic and Neolithic, as well as historical or proto-historical, including Paleo-European or Proto-Indo-European, Neolithic and historical reflexes and influences. We are also in a position to talk about the structure, composition and distribution of American languages in relation to Indo-European, as well as the specifics of Asian-American influence and Asian substrates. The compact, complex and multilateral relations and influences of several linguistic layers, among which we find the Paleolithic and Neolithic, proto-historical and historical language layers, on the formation of contemporary linguistic cultures are recognizable. This does not diminish the significance of the historical influence, but on the contrary enhances and harmonizes with earlier Paleolithic and Neolithic genealogies.

Where the influences on the language structure are mutual, so on the one hand we have the Paleolithic-Neolithic linguistic base, and on the other hand we have proto-historical and historical influence which also significantly affects the concrete linguistic result. From where we have the linguistic substrate and linguistic influence, the basis and new bases, the upgrading and implementation as well as the specific temporal overlaps and repetitions of influence as a kind of linguistic acculturation of language culture, chronological acculturation or human acculturation, illogicality in the development and genealogy of the human phylogenetic tree, and in fact it is about repeated multi-layered weather influences or superimposed substrates, repeated or renewed original language genealogies, forms and bases.

 

Origin of language, African continent

One of the conclusions of the paleolinguistic analysis is certainly the return to the African roots and the African foundations of all linguistic culture of modern civilization, the return to the African linguistic roots and the linear derivation of language genesis, at least as far as our current knowledge is concerned, and in the period of the Paleolithic shift. The phylogenetic tree of the languages of paleo and proto-historical groups begins with an African substrate and an African geological chronology, to continue with intercontinental Paleolithic exchange. Inevitably refers to linear development, which does not mean that there was no diffuse or discontiuented development of language culture for a certain period. All the more significant is our understanding of the cultural genome and within it the language genome, with which we follow the development of languages, language groups, and paleolinguistic genealogical shifts. Paleo languages come to the fore, their authenticity, autochthonousness and today, the linguistic thread for further linguistic and comparative linguistic analyses and studies. Parallelism of linguistic influences, comparative linguistics is significantly enriched by this because it can dispose of schemes or templates for further linguistic comparisons, philological interpretations and conclusions. Until now, such conclusions were somewhat limited, somewhat impossible, given the lack of objective facts and scientifically attested knowledge. Linguistic analysis is further facilitated here, paving the way for a new comparative paleolinguistics. Above all, studies related to the Paleolithic-Neolithic and paleo-historical-historical relationships of different time layers and interlayer analysis.

Paleo-linguistics will be more Paleolithic protohistorically based on the foundations and genealogies of Paleolithic languages, hence paleo-languages will be treated to a greater extent as languages from the Paleolithic and Neolithic periods and efforts will be made to a greater extent to find substrates for results, for these and such linguistic substrates of modern language. The insights are certainly numerous and abundant, they conclude a lot about the nature and composition of language, those linguistic foundations that led to modern functional effective language and which certainly served in the past as an instrument or means of efficient organization and division of labor, Paleolithic polarization, egalitarianism and economic activities. Paleolinguistic analysis provides a clearer and more structured picture and elaborates knowledge on the most important linguistic issues, linguistic foundations, above all, the origin, history and geneology of the language and the multi-layered linguistic complex that is formed by previous genealogies, linguistic movements and long time influences.

The latest research in genetic biology, biological anthropology and bio-linguistics returns the origin of language and human culture to the African continent, and puts Africa at the very beginning of linguistic genealogy as the source and spreader of consequent groups of languages, so that Africa is further considered the ancestral language continent. Africa is really a linguistic pivot all things considered, it is the linguistic ancestor from which modern linguistic genealogy stems, and its influences range from the earliest days of prehistory to proto-historical results and historical forms of language, the chronology is recognizable and with multiple influences interweaving and notable cultural foundations. 

Paleolanguages are consistent, which means that they are more extended, more permanent in a certain sense, more homogeneous, over a longer period of time and on a wider geographical territory. Consistency points to another very important feature of these languages, which is resilience, a large lexical breadth, the paleolayer of the language will survive even if the language groups have different and radical influences, given that these influences are short-term, shorter compared to the long-term or basal influence of the paleolinguistic layer. The base is therefore unchanged even though derivations are derived, the forms or reflexes of words change. This reflects the basic consistency of the linguistic source or paleolanguage. Consistency means the formation of languages over very long periods of time and over large geographical areas, which enables their groove or structuring, such a structure enables the emergence of phylotypes as a kind of philological-logical or linguistic patterns that are used as forms of expression and communication, i.e., intangible relationships. These and such consistent forms show greater resistance to changes over a longer period of time, regardless of pronounced historical perturbations and new linguistic undulations.

We are primarily interested in Paleolithic languages and Paleolithic language groups from the point of view of paleolinguistic studies, which is the basic phylogenetic tree of language genealogy, much more consequential and branched with a greater number of insights than later diffuse reflexes. The basic genealogical tree of the language is a much more branched, we will therefore focus on the linguistic base, the shape of the linguistic root and tree as the pivot of the paleo-historical group of languages, the derivations of modern languages and these are new findings that we have reached through analysis. They are intercontinental in their origin much more than continental and subcontinental, their influence is much more far-reaching, intercontinental movement, intercontinental influence of the genetic tree of migrations and the gynecological tree of the paleolanguage show its global distribution more clearly and transparently, a global view of the place of an isolated continental pivot, paleolithic intercontinental ancient and ancient movements migration of human cultures than could be assumed.

Paleolinguistics periodization includes the periods and time differences of the Paleolithic, Neolithic and Late Neolithic as well as historical periodizations of recent protohistory, primarily the genealogy and periodicals of protolanguages, referring to two basic waves and two or three cycles or cyclical movements within the linguistic genealogy of the Indo-European group of languages. The first and older cycle refers to the Paleolithic periodization of language groups, the formation of languages, linguistic elements, as well as the influence on a wider geographical area and further through the Neolithic, although in a somewhat modified cyclical type of the influence of protohistoric waves primarily of the dominant Indo-European form. The second and third cycles describe precisely the protohistoric periodization, with significant influences on the final results of contemporary languages and the results of language groups. Modern results are the result of the interweaving and interaction of paleohistorical and protohistorical influences of basic primordial and later genealogical revolutions, as well as changes to a greater or lesser extent.

Hence, the interplay between evolutes and revolutes, lingual cycles, lingual evolution and lingual revolution of alternating evolutive and revolute growth and development, which therefore describe the most significant periods of evolutive and cyclic movement with the difference that a longer period of time and evolutes of paleo-historical groups of languages show a greater advantage and durability over a long series of years, a greater number of periods, while the proto-historical impact is somewhat shorter, they have a radical and revolutionary impact. Paleolithic languages are consistent with regard to the duration of protest and hence form the basis or linguistics of the generation and geological development of words in relation to proto-historical and historical languages, precisely this consistency of language forms the lexical base of the language, enables durability and gives the lexical upgrade of words. The further we go into the past, the more permanent homogeneous and consistent such homogeneity is, and over a long period of time also dynamic, forming in the case of the derivation of paleo languages new continental groups and subgroups.

 

Paleo-Balkan or Paleo-European language groups

Some of the main conclusions and repercussions of the Paleolithic language group and paleolinguistics are the Paleo-Balkan or Paleo-European language group, the origin, growth and development into the Balkan subspecies and the Paleo-European subspecies, especially their transition, and the autonomous development preceding the Indo-European language group in the period before and after the Neolithic, in the protohistoric periods of linguistic culture.

Paleolinguistics science gives us an insight into the emergence of an authentic native group of languages characteristic of Paleolithic Europe, especially according to its distribution in the Paleolithic Balkans, the homogeneous and consistent culture of the Paleo-Balkan language group. Paleolinguistics therefore refers to the undoubted existence of Paleo-European languages in the pre-Neolithic period and historical periodizations of Indo-European languages in the Late Paleolithic, and then a certain continuity as spatial and Neolithic derivations within the entire European continent and their interaction with the latter no less significant influences and reflexes of specific language groups. Paleo-Balkan languages were first formed as the earliest indigenous European languages in the era of linguistic antiquity during the periods of the formation of the foundations and elements of Paleolithic languages. 

Furthermore, the conclusion we come to by comparing the Paleo-Balkan group of languages is that an original language culture, autochthonous, originated in the European area itself, and that such a group of language bases, a system of paleo-linguistic elements should be viewed as unique, autochthonous, original, independent of the latter and certainly significant influences of interactions and products. The Paleo-Balkan group of languages is an autochthonous, native cultural creation, a paleo-linguistic phenomenon in the period from 40,000 years BC to the end of the LGM with certainly specific sub-phases and smaller periods, growth and development, linguistic elements and linguistic attempts as spruts of the new European culture. European culture, on the other hand, is of course much older than it has been imagined so far, and its significant cultural changes were achieved in the southern part of the European continent. First of all, in terms of total influences on the Balkans and the wider Balkan area, European culture is Paleolithic culture in the sense of its Paleolithic linguistic history and not only linguistic but also the overall Paleolithic culture of the Paleolithic Balkans and paleo-linguistic genealogy and derivation. This derivation in many or some individual places is jumpy, therefore cyclical, but geneo-genealogically, it is undoubtedly placed on the same level with paleo-linguistic groups and from them it also originates in proto-linguistic cultures such as late and historical or proto-derivations of the post-glacial period.

In the period immediately after the significant migrations and the formulation of the autochthonous I haplogroup, the Paleo-Balkan language group first emerged with the first substrates, the Paleo-Balkan, Paleo Hellenic languages. That culture shows continuity over a long period of time through recognizable temporal and spatial homogeneity for tens of thousands of years until the LGM. From the Paleo-Balkan group of languages in the periods of later European migrations, primarily of a Neolithic nature, other Paleo-languages and Paleo-linguistic bases of Paleo-linguistic culture and autochthonous European proto-languages arose, respectively such as Paleo-Germanic, from it Paleo-Nordic and later Neolithic proto-languages. In the protohistoric periods, the influence of the Indo-European groups of languages, their interaction, as well as the common historical reflex, which will be reflected in the final result of language cultures and lead to knowledge of the language as we know it today. 

The Paleo-Balkan group of languages has its undoubted valuable place in the knowledge of paleo-linguistics analyses of recent date and is undoubtedly the most significant linguistic finding in terms of European language cultures. Something like the discovery of the autochthonous European language culture and its ancient age and antiquity, as well as conclusions about the derivatives of the unique Paleo-European language tree, as well as the basic Paleo-Balkan tree.

Balkan languages are autochthonous indigenous original languages of the European Balkan subcontinent that arose over a long period of time, in a period of spatial and temporal homogenization, and possess their undoubted authenticity. They are located a whole day lower in the periodization of paleolinguistic science and at the same time they are treated and observed as an autochthonous language formation. With these conclusions and findings, of course, the paleolinguistic theory is much older and is primarily found in the Paleolithic period, unlike the later Neolithic protolinguistic periods.

Hence, we can only talk about the latter, later Indo-European substrates and their interaction with the already largely formed linguistic base of Paleo-European languages. Proto-historical languages interact with the Paleolithic substrate, which leads to an undoubted modern linguistic result and the formation of modern European languages.

 

Paleohistorical interveawing and periodicals

We were primarily interested in Paleolithic languages and Paleolithic language groups from the point of view of paleolinguistic studies, which is the basic phylogenetic tree of language genealogy, much more consequential and branched with a greater number of insights than later diffuse reflexes. The basic genealogical tree of the language is a much more branched, we will therefore focus on the linguistic base, the shape of the linguistic root and tree as the pivot of the paleo-historical group of languages, the derivations of modern languages and these are new findings that we have reached through analysis. They are intercontinental in their origin much more than continental and subcontinental, their influence is much more far-reaching, intercontinental movement, intercontinental influence of the genetic tree of migrations and the gynecological tree of the paleolanguage show its global distribution more clearly and transparently, rather than a global view of the place of an isolated continental pivot, the paleolithic intercontinental migration of human cultures than could be assumed.

In contrast to previous paleolinguistic and phylogeneological analyses, we have a much more detailed genealogical picture, a phylogenetic tree of human populations that provides more information for creating models or a certain greater precision when creating drafts of the phylogenetic development of languages and language groups, the genetic distribution base that is now we have it far more precise, and we almost have a clear insight into the development and derivation of population cultures and the phylogeny of prehistoric cultures, relations of derivation and longer homogenous continuities or consistencies of language cultures or population cultures are far more distinct and clearly described by attested genetic research of haplo groups and haplo populations as far as of the Paleolithic period, it has been scientifically described very accurately and scientifically attested by the findings of biological genetics, this does not mean that derivations, influence and correlations did not exist before the Paleolithic period, but with these genetic insights, a period that was largely prehistoric and therefore unclear was greatly facilitated and clearly described nebulous without reliable scientific data, in these ways paleolinguistics has been significantly illuminated, and the possibility has been opened for detailed and complex analyses within linguistic research, especially on the presumptions of paleolithic language groups and assumptions that were formed or conceived and for which there was no evidence or scientific data until this moment and attest, that situation is significantly different, and we can now confidently claim the presence of language cultures or language derivations and the homogeneity and derivations of certain language groups and language groups by correlations, population culture haplo groups and language groups especially groups of related languages on a wider area and globally, such correlations certainly exist, they are evident and testify to influences and quite evident interweaving interactions over a long period of time.

At this point, we are able to make a precise picture of the genetic tree of languages and groups of languages, establish relationships between language groups and derivations in the prehistoric period, in the Paleolithic with a fair amount of scientific reliability, and finally, to a fair extent, be quite sure of the conditions, forms, coexistences, influences and developments of linguistic genealogy, at least as far as the Paleolithic period is concerned, as well as its further interaction in Neolithic reflexes and cultural waves of different periods. The tree represents a scientific recommendation or an objective fact that we have at our disposal in the period of Paleolithic migrations and Paleolithic linguistic and cultural development, the phylogenetic tree is a reliable paradigm or scientific basis that can be used in further scientific elaborations and relations with the Neolithic or Pre-Paleolithic periods.

Paleolinguistics periodization includes the periods and time differences of the Paleolithic, Neolithic and Late Neolithic as well as historical periodizations of recent protohistory, primarily the genealogy and periodicals of protolanguages, referring to two basic waves and two or three cycles or cyclical movements within the linguistic genealogy of the Indo-European group of languages. The first and older cycle refers to the Paleolithic periodization of language groups, the formation of languages, linguistic elements, as well as the influence on a wider geographical area and further through the Neolithic, although in a somewhat modified cyclical type of the influence of protohistoric waves primarily of the dominant Indo-European form. The second and third cycles describe precisely the protohistoric periodization, with significant influences on the final results of contemporary languages and the results of language groups. Modern results are the result of the interweaving and interaction of paleohistorical and protohistorical influences of basic primordial and later genealogical revolutions, as well as changes to a greater or lesser extent.

 

Bibliography

Ashraf, Q., & Galor, O. (2013). The “Out of Africa” hypothesis, human genetic diversity, and comparative economic development. American Economic Review, 103(1), 1-46.

Atkinson, E. G., Dalvie, S., Pichkar, Y., Kalungi, A., Majara, L., Stevenson, A., ... & Martin, A. R. (2022). Genetic structure correlates with ethnolinguistic diversity in eastern and southern Africa. The American Journal of Human Genetics, 109(9), 1667-1679.

Bergström, A., Nagle, N., Chen, Y., McCarthy, S., Pollard, M. O., Ayub, Q., ... & Tyler-Smith, C. (2016). Deep roots for Aboriginal Australian Y chromosomes. Current Biology, 26(6), 809-813.

Blench, R., & Dendo, M. (2004). Genetics and linguistics in sub-Saharan Africa. SAFA 2004 (Bergen).

Campbell, L. (2006, September). Languages and genes in collaboration: some practical matters. In Language and Genes: An Interdisciplinary Conference, Santa Barbara.[University of California, 8-10 September 2006.].

Cavalli-Sforza, L. L. (1997). Genes, peoples, and languages. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 94(15), 7719-7724.

Chen, J., CHEN, H., SOKAL, R. R., RUHLEN, M., & HEAGGERTY, P. (2012). Worldwide Analysis of Ge netic and Linguistic Relationships of Human Populations [with Commentary]. Human Biology, 553-578.

Ersheidat, G., & Tahir, H. (2020). Genetic relationship among languages: An overview. International Journal of Language Education and Applied Linguistics, 17-27.

Fisher, S. E., & Vernes, S. C. (2015). Genetics and the language sciences. Annu. Rev. Linguist., 1(1), 289-310.

Gamkrelidze, T. V., & Ivanov, V. V. (1995). Indo-European and the Indo-Europeans: A Reconstruction and Historical Analysis of a Proto-Language and Proto-Culture. De Gruyter Mouton.

Güldemann, T., McConvell, P., & Rhodes, R. A. (Eds.). (2020). The language of hunter-gatherers. Cambridge University Press.

Haber, M., Jones, A. L., Connell, B. A., Asan, Arciero, E., Yang, H., ... & Tyler-Smith, C. (2019). A rare deep-rooting D0 African Y-chromosomal haplogroup and its implications for the expansion of modern humans out of Africa. Genetics, 212(4), 1421-1428.

Hallast, P., Agdzhoyan, A., Balanovsky, O., Xue, Y., & Tyler-Smith, C. (2019). Early replacement of West Eurasian male Y chromosomes from the east. bioRxiv, 867317.

Klein, R. G. (2017). Language and human evolution. Journal of Neurolinguistics, 43, 204-221.

Ll, C. S. (1988). Reconstruction of human evolution: Bringing together genetic, archeological, and linguistic data. PNAS USA, 85, 6002-6006.

Mallory, J., Dybo, A., & Balanovsky, O. (2019). The impact of genetics research on archaeology and linguistics in Eurasia. Russian Journal of Genetics, 55, 1472-1487.

Menozzi P, A.Piazza, L.Cavalli Sforza (1978), Syntetic Maps of Human Gene Frequencies in Europeans. These maps indicate that early farmers of the Near East spread to all of Europe in the Neolithic, in Science, 201, 786-792.

Mesoudi, A., McElligott, A. G., & Adger, D. (2011). Introduction; Integrating Genetic and Cultural Evolutionary Approaches to Language. Human Biology, 83(2), 141-151.

Miklosich, F. (1861). Die slavischen Elemente im Rumänischen. Gerold.

Pericic, M., Lauc, L. B., Klaric, I. M., Rootsi, S., Janićijević, B., Rudan, I., ... & Rudan, P. (2005). High-resolution phylogenetic analysis of southeastern Europe traces major episodes of paternal gene flow among Slavic populations. Molecular biology and evolution, 22(10), 1964-1975.

Richerson, P. J., Boyd, R., & Henrich, J. (2010). Gene-culture coevolution in the age of genomics. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 107(supplement_2), 8985-8992.

Rootsi, S., Kivisild, T., Benuzzi, G., Bermisheva, M., Kutuev, I., Barać, L., ... & Semino, O. (2004). Phylogeography of Y-chromosome haplogroup I reveals distinct domains of prehistoric gene flow in Europe. The American Journal of Human Genetics, 75(1), 128-137.

Sajantila, A., Lahermo, P., Anttinen, T., Lukka, M., Sistonen, P., Savontaus, M. L., ... & Pääbo, S. (1995). Genes and languages in Europe: an analysis of mitochondrial lineages. Genome Research, 5(1), 42-52.

Sandfeld, K. (1926). Balkanfilologien: En oversigt over dens resultater og problemer. Copenhagen: Lunp; translated into French as Linguistique balkanique: problèmes et résultats. Paris: Champion.

Schleicher, A. (1850). Die sprachen Europas in systematischer Uebersicht vol. 2: Die Sprachen Europas in systematischer Übersicht. Bonn: H.B. König

Számadó, S., Hurford, J. R., Bishop, D. V., Deacon, T. W., d’Errico, F., Fischer, J., ... & White, S. A. (2009). What are the possible biological and genetic foundations for syntactic phenomena?. Biological foundations and origin of syntax.

Tishkoff, S. A., Gonder, M. K., Henn, B. M., Mortensen, H., Knight, A., Gignoux, C., ... & Mountain, J. L. (2007). History of click-speaking populations of Africa inferred from mtDNA and Y chromosome genetic variation. Molecular biology and evolution, 24(10), 2180-2195.

Trubetzkoy, N. S. (1923). Vavilonskaja bašnja i smešenie jazykov (Вавилонская башня и смешение языков)[The tower of Babel and the confusion of languages]. Evrazijskij vremennik, 107-124.

Wang, C. C., & Li, H. (2013). Inferring human history in East Asia from Y chromosomes. Investigative Genetics, 4, 1-11.

Weigand, G. (1925). Vorwort, zugleich Programm des Balkan-Archivs. Balkan-Archiv: Fortsetzung des Jahresberichtes des Instituts für rumänische Sprache.